SPE.REL ~ TIME WHEEL
an exhaustive
timeline is available on Fayçal
Titah's site
NB : pour les concours,
éviter le piège de l'accumulation de connaissances et d'anecdotique
au détriment de la méthodologie. Voir les section Dissertation
et commentaire de civilisation
---
1943
August
The Quebec Agreement (governing nuclear collaboration between the authorities of
the U.S.A. and U.K )
excepts
1944
July
BRETTON WOODS AGREEMENT
A currency agreement which set fixed exchange rates for major currencies, provided
for central bank intervention in currency markets, and set the price of gold at US$35
per ounce.
The agreement controlled currency relationships for nearly 30 years.
more
September
HYDE PARK AGREEMENT
Roosevelt/Churchill, on sharing postwar development of nuclear weapons.
At the urging of Prime Minister Churchill, FDR and Churchill sign a secret memorandum
that "the world" is not to be told of the atomic bomb before its use and
steps should be taken to see that there is no leakage of information from Professor
Bohr "particularly to the Russians".
Full collaboration between the two countries "for military and commercial purposes"
will continue after the defeat of Japan. (32)
[To the dismay of the British, President Truman would simply abrogate the agreement
for joint authority for nuclear weapons and claim that no copy of such an accord
could be found. The 1946 McMahon Act which he signed barred the US from sharing atomic
secrets with any country, even the United Kingdom which had initiated the research.
(33)]
source
1945
February
THE YALTA CONFERENCE
Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt discussed Europeâs postwar reorganization
April
Roosevelt dies.
Truman becomes president (1945 ÷ 1953 )
US Secretary of State : James Byrnes (1945 ÷ 1947 )
GB Prime Minister : Clement Attlee (1945 ÷ 1951 )
GB Foreign secretary : Ernest Bevin (1945 ÷ 1951 )
July
Attlee becomes Prime minister
July ÷ August
POTSDAM CONFERENCE
Meeting of the principal qllies in World War II (United States, USSR and Great Britain)
to clarify and implement agreements previously reached at the Yalta Conference.
The chief representatives were President Truman, Premier Stalin, Prime Minister Churchill,
and, after Churchill's defeat in the British elections, Prime Minister Attlee.
see source
August
End of LEND LEASE.
more
December
Britain secures a loan from the US :
The United States loans Great Britain $3.75 billion.
In March, 1946 when told that the French government of Léon Blum was on the
verge of being replaced by a Communist one, the United States averted this catastrophe
by a loan of $1.3 billion and a write-off of $2.7 billion of war debts.
source
1946
March
Winston S. Churchill's "Iron Curtain Speech"
Church introduced the phrase "Iron Curtain" to describe the division between
Western powers and the area controlled by the Soviet Union.
As such the speech marks the onset of the Cold War.
Excerpts
January
First session of the United Nations General Assembly takes place.
It replaced the failed League of Nations. The number of international concerns was
daunting.
Britain had problems in Palestine.
Too many Jews wanted to go there and the Arabs were anxious. Britain banned more
Jews from going to Palestine this angered the Americans.
They demanded 100,000 Jews should be allowed into Palestine.
The British withdrew their embassy staff
source
August
McMAHON ACT
The McMahon Bill (December 20,1945) becomes law on Aug. 1 1946 (Atomic Energy Act
of 1946)
US legislature limited release of nuclear information to foreign powers (Prime Minister
Harold Macmillanâs efforts later resulted in the selective repeal in 1958 of
the McMahon Act)
1947
George Marshall is US Secretary of State (1947 ÷ 1949 )
March 12
The "TRUMAN DOCTRINE", outlined in a presidential speech to Congress, makes
it U.S. policy to protect nations threatened by communism.
source
It will be referred to as the "doctrine of containment"
THE MARSHALL PLAN
The Marshall Plan (April 2) Famous speech given by Marshall in Harvard on June 5.
ãthe plan laid the foundation for the Anglo-American "special relationshipä.
The plan also changed the attitude toward the United States of the British moderate
left, which had, with the end of the war, come to regard the United States as a hard,
self-interested capitalist power.
Although the nuclear brinkmanship of President Eisenhower's secretary of state, John
Foster Dulles, created strains, the right and center of the Labour Party and the
entire Conservative Party, except for a chauvinist fringe, were instinctively pro-American
for the rest of their political lives.ä
ãThe downside was that Britain became less amenable to its real status: an
elder and maybe most-favored child, but not a liberated mother. It was a recipient,
not a donor, yet it tried to behave as though the reverse were true.
There was a mixture of the splendid and the ridiculous in the British attitude. London
led Europe in responding to Marshall's speech, yet, having led the continent, the
British government sought to detach itself from the rest. This was a remarkable and
depressing precursor of Britain's relationship with Europe in subsequent decades.ä
source
more info
DOSSIER
LE PLAN MARSHALL in French
G.B : secret decision to launch an atomic bomb
project for political reasons.
Source : NATO
PALESTINE :
Because both Palestine and Transjordan were British Mandate territories during this
period, the Colonial Office actually administered these lands.
However, Palestineâs unique status as a holy land for three major religions
and the creation of a Jewish homeland within an Arab population affected British
relations with not only much of the Arab world and Jewish communities worldwide but
also many Western governments, especially the United States.
The administrative policies of the British government in Palestine affected British
relations with many countries and influential groups in Europe and America. For example,
the number of Jews allowed to legally immigrate to Palestine each year was fraught
with foreign policy issues.
The Arab states and populations opposed any Jewish immigration, while Zionist groups
demanded large-scale immigration
With the end of the war and the election of the Attlee Labour government in Britain,
Zionist hopes for a new policy were again frustrated, and Jewish terrorist attacks
escalated. Support for a militant Zionism came from abroad, especially from Americans
who contributed both money and pressure on their political leadership to liberalize
Jewish immigration to Palestine.
Caught between Arab and Jewish demands and short on funds, the Attlee government
in early 1947 transfers the British mandate over to the United Nations.
source
May
the USA take over GB in Greece and Turkey
ãGreat Britain finds itself under the necessity of reducing or liquidating
its commitments in several parts of the world, including Greeceä,
ãThe very existence of the Greek state is today threatened by the terrorist
activities of several thousand armed men, led by Communists, who defy the government's
authority at a number of pointsä
(Truman)
source
1948
Committee of European Economic Cooperation (CEEC) is created
THE BERLIN BLOCKADE : June 1948-May 1949
THE BERLIN AIRLIFT : American perspective.
see here
In reply to the Berlin blockade by Moscow, London
accepts the stationing of American B-29 bombers capable of carrying atomic bombs
on British soil and even that the final use of these weapons would not be subject
to a British veto. (Richard Davis)
The first United Nations peace keeping force was formed to cope with the situation
in Palestine. It would be the longest UN peace-keeping operation of all - it remains
there.
The Soviet Union blocked off Berlin and American and British pilots began the Berlin
Airlift flying in medical supplies and foodstuffs.
source
Israel declares itself a nation.
Truman recognizes Israel 16 mn after its proclamation (May 14).
British evacuation of Israel.
1949
Dean Acheson US secretary of state (1949 -1953 )
May, 12
End of the Soviet blockade of Berlin after failure.
In Britain, the dockers went on strike and, the Government was forced to devalue
the £.
NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was formed. Its first Secretary General,
Lord Ismay, famously remarked that NATO's European purpose was to keep the Americans
in, keep the Russians out and keep the Germans down.
Much of the credit for bringing the Americans on board the NATO idea was due to Ernest
Bevin, the British Foreign Secretary.
source
August
First USSR atomic bomb.
The USSR establishes the German Democratic Republic (Oct.)
Creation of the Council of Europe (France, Great Britain and the Benelux countries)
Denmark, Ireland, Italy Norway and Switzerland to help them prepare the statute of
such Council.
The Republic of Ireland leaves the Commonwealth
1950
KOREAN WAR :
In 1950 the North Korean communists marched into South Korea. Britain, America and
the UN stepped in to help the South Korean capitalists. The Russians stepped in on
the North Korean side.
Meanwhile in Britain there was an election. The Labour Party scraped back in.
In 1950 Robert Schuman, the French foreign minister, presented what became known
as the Schuman Plan for a European Coal and Steel Community. Britain declined to
join in 1950.
source
THE TRUMAN /ATTLEE ãUNDERSTANDINGä :
They disagreed on two issues - recognition of Communist China and control of atomic
weapons.
Great Britain supported recognizing Red China and admitting the country to the United
Nations, which the United States continued to oppose.
Truman vetoed the suggestion that the United States turn control of when to use the
atom bomb to the United Nations.
The two countries reached "complete agreement" that all NATO countries
should immediately beef up their military strength to resist communist aggression.
see here
1951 :
W.Churchill elected Prime minister (1951 ÷ 1955 )
GB Foreign Secretary : Anthony Eden (1951 ÷ 1955 )
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) with 6 countries (Belgium,
Federal Republic of Germany (former West Germany), France, Italy, Luxembourg, and
the Netherlands.)
The executive machinery of the ECSC provided an important precedent for the future
growth of a united
Europe.
info
May
Iranian Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh passes a bill to nationalize the British-owned
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company
1952
Churchill's (the Conservative prime Minister) priorities lay in America, Korea, Malaya
and soon Egypt. He was a less interested in the situation at home.
This was the period when Britain was becoming a nuclear weapons power and therefore
the so-called special relationship with the USA, as important as ever.
source
October
"Britain tests an atomic (nuclear fission) bomb developed by her physicists
October 2 over the Monte Bello Islands near Australia. She joins the United States
and the U.S.S.R. as a nuclear power."
see
November :
The United States detonates the first hydrogen bomb.
The explosion is 500 times more powerful than the bomb exploded at Nagasaki.
info
1953
Dwight D.Eisenhower elected president (1953 ÷ 1961)
US Secretary of State : John Foster Dulles (1953 ÷ 1959 )
In Russia Stalin died and Malenkov took over although the real power would be assumed
by Nikita Khrushchev.
Churchill felt this was an opportunity to better East/West relations and wanted a
summit meeting between Britain America and the USSR leaders. America was not so sure.
source
IRAN : A CIA coup overthrows the government of Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh
and re-installs Reza Pahlavi as Shah of Iran.
Over 300 people are killed and many hundreds are wounded in the nine hours of fighting.
[Plans had been brewing to oust the nationalist Mossadegh ever since he and his party
had passed a bill in 1951 to nationalize the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.
The coup, however, was increasingly proclaimed in the years following as essential
to prevent "the obvious threat of Russian takeover".
source
1954
Gradual removal of the restrictions imposed by the McMahon Act (from 1954 to 1958
)
July
British decision to make an "H"ydrogen - Bomb
In 1954 Churchill continued to try and bring Russia and America to the negotiating
table with little success.
He calls a meeting in Moscow without consulting his Cabinet.
The Cabinet had had enough of Churchill making decisions without them.
The government looked in danger of collapse and Eden badgered Churchill to resign
and nominate him (Eden) as successor.
Nasser became Prime Minister of Egypt in 1954.
He wanted the British to withdraw from the Suez Canal Zone.
They signed an agreement undertaking to withdraw by 1956.
source
1955
April
Anthony Eden becomes PM after Churchillâs resignation ( 1955 ÷ 1956
)
GB Foreign Secretary : (april ÷ december 1955 )
1956
THE SUEZ CRISIS
In 1956 Egypt's President Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal. America and Britain
had refused his demands for money to build the High Dam.
The Americans at least believed that Egypt's closeness to the USSR made such a request
impossible. But the Americans were not willing to go to war over the canal; the British
Prime Minister, Anthony Eden was. So was France.
The Israelis were keen to attack Egypt from the East. Although Eden's own Cabinet
was not entirely behind him (nor too were the chiefs of staff) Eden ordered the assault
on the canal zone. The USA proposed a UN cease-fire. Britain and France accepted.
The Suez Crisis demonstrated the danger of a Prime Minister obsessed and also the
weakness of the transatlantic special relationship.
It was an illusion.
Eden, was in poor health and Suez led to his resignation and his replacement by Harold
Macmillan.
source
info in French
1957
First testing of the British "H" Bomb (May 15)
Harold Macmillan became Prime Minister ( 1957 ÷ 1963 ).
He had four issues before him: Ireland, Cyprus, relations with the United States
after Suez; the economy.
In mid 1957 there was a run on sterling. The government put interest rates up. Inflation
was under control but unemployment, already high, would suffer because of it.
This was the year Macmillan agreed with America that in return for Thor guided missiles
Britain would give the Americans bases in the United Kingdom. This too was the beginning
of Britain's nuclear defence policy.
source
March
Treaty of Rome : European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Community
(Euratom)
DECLARATION OF COMMON PURPOSE
meeting between the President of the United States and the Prime Minister of the
United Kingdom to record the view that there should be close and fruitful collaboration
of scientists and engineers in defence research and development.
source
1958
US/UK MUTUAL DEFENCE AGREEMENT
info
Britain agreed to have American nuclear missile bases in the United Kingdom.
Although the majority of the population appeared indifferent or did not understand
the arrangement with the US, there was an emerging anti-nuclear mood.
It was in this atmosphere that in 1958, CND, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
started. It was too the year that Life Peers were created for the first time.
source
1959
It was during 1959, that arrangements were made for an alternative to membership
of the EEC.
It was called EFTA, the European Freed Trade Association and would come into being
the following year (1960). EEC members saw this as a direct threat to European commercial
and political harmony.
source
1960
GB Foreign Secretary : Sir Alec Douglas-Home (1960 ÷ 1963)
Macmillan went to Cape Town and made his famous Wind of Change speech which warned
all those (including some of his own Party) who resisted the end of colonial rule,
that the time had come when people throughout the world, especially in Africa, should
be helped towards independence.
source
Kennedy signed an agreement with Britain to base American Polaris missile submarines
in Scotland - a nuclear stone's throw from the Soviet Union
source
January
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) convention, regrouping Austria, Denmark,
Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom is signed in Stockholm,
Sweden.
1961
US President : John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1961 ÷ 1963)
US Secretary of state : Dean Rusk (1961 ÷ 1969)
1962 -1963
THE AFTERMATH OF THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
The Cuban missile crisis marked the point at which the Cold War began to thaw. Both
sides had peered over the precipice of nuclear war and wisely decided to retreat.
Khrushchev eventually accepted the status quo in West Berlin, and the predicted conflict
there never materialized.
The thaw also led to the signing of the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 by
Britain, the United States, and the USSR.
The treaty outlawed nuclear test explosions in the atmosphere or underwater, but
allowed them underground.
source
NASSAU AGREEMENT
Treaty signed on 18 December 1962 whereby the USA provided Britain with Polaris missiles,
marking a strengthening in Anglo-American relations.
1963
US President : Lyndon B Johnson : (1963 ÷ 1969)
October
GB Prime minister : Alec Douglas-Home (1963 ÷ 1964) after McMillanâs
resignation
Opposition of De Gaulle to the membership of GB to the European Community (Feb. 14)
Test Ban Treaty is signed between Britain, the U.S. and the Soviet Union. (Aug. 5)
info
POLARIS SALES AGREEMENT
source
1964
January 7
London announces that it is providing Cuba with credit to buy 400 British buses (antagonising
Johnson)
October
Harold Wilson becomes PM (1964 ÷ 1970)
1965
March 8-9
The first American combat troops arrive in Vietnam
info
H. Wilson refuses to send British troops to Vietnam :
ãOver Vietnam, Lyndon Johnson put increasing pressure on Wilson to provide
a British contingent - which he resisted. But he also had to maintain the posture,
which was costly window dressing, of a significant British defence presence east
of Suezä
more
1967
GB : THE DEVALUATION OF THE POUND in 1967 virtually destroyed what was left of the
economic strategy.
In November sterling fell to $2.40 and a badly shaken prime minister made an inept
television address to the nation, arguing that the "pound in your pocket"
was unaffected - an extraordinary reversal of the euphoric days of 1964-1966.
info
GB : second EEC application, but vetoed once
again by De Gaulle :
President Charles De Gaulle :
ãCompared with the motives that led the Six to organize their unit, we understand
for what reasons, why Britain-who is not continental, who remains, because of the
Commonwealth and because she is an island, committed far beyond the seas, who is
tied to the United States by all kinds of special agreements-did not merge into a
Community with set dimensions and strict rules.
While this Community was taking shape, Britain therefore first refused to participate
in It and even took toward it a hostile attitude as if she saw in It an economic
and political threat.
Then she tried to negotiate in order to join the Community, but in such conditions
that the latter would have been suffocated by this membership. The attempt having
failed, the British Government then asserted that it no longer wanted to enter the
Community and set about strengthening its ties with the Commonwealth and with other
European countries grouped around it in a free-trade areaä
ãConsidering the special relations that tic the British to America, with the
advantage and also the dependence that results for them; considering the existence
of the Commonwealth and their preferential relations with it;
considering the special commitment that they still have in various parts of the world
and which, basically, distinguishes them from the continentals, we see that the policy
of the latter, as soon as they have one, would undoubtedly concur, in certain cases,
with the policy of the former.
But we cannot see how both policies could merge, unless the British assumed
again, particularly as regards defense, complete command of themselves, or else if
the continentals renounced forever a European Europe.ä
more
1968
British demonstrations against the Vietnam War
Wilson tells the House of Commons that British forces would be withdrawn from the
East of Suez by the end of 1971. (Jan. 16)
Nuclear Anti-Proliferation TREATY : recognized by many countries including the Soviet
Union.
The NPT barred acquisition of nuclear weapons by non nuclear states and forbade nuclear
states to export their capabilities to other nations.
source
1969
Richard Nixon US President (1969 ÷ 1974)
Henry Kissinger (national security adviser) (1969 -1973) dominated the making of
US foreign policy during the Nixon Presidency.
Nixon recalled in his memoirs:
"From the outset of my administration, . . . I planned to direct foreign
policy from the White House. Therefore I regarded my choice of a National
Security Adviser as crucial."
more
1970
GB : Edward Heath (C) becomes P.M. (1970-1974)
The relationship between GB and US deteriorates :
ãEdward Heath, one of the only two prime ministers to break the post-war mould,
cared little about public reaction as he studiously worked to show that Washington
was second to Europeä
source
1973
Henry Kissinger becomes secretary of State (1973-1977)
In 1973 all the talk was of joining the European Community and what it would mean
for Britain. Most people believed it was a purely commercial venture that would enhance
opportunities for industry.
Edward Heath wanted it to go much further than that.
The British people were Europeans only on paper.
source
January
GB becomes a member of the European Community (with Ireland and Denmark)
ãMr Heath believed that enthusiasm for the market existed predominantly among
the young. Elsewhere he detected no more than good old British pragmatism. He had
been impressed by people he had met who did not expect immediate benefit for themselves
but looked forward to a better life for their children and grandchildren.ä
source
Kissinger's appeal for that year to be called "The Year of Europe":
ãNeither we nor the French were amused by this intervention, nor were our
other European colleagues as they got to hear about.
When I next saw Henry, I enquired whether he really thought it was the responsibility
of the Americans to organise a Year of Europe.
For Henry Kissinger to announce a year of Europe without consulting any of us was
rather like my standing between the lions in Trafalgar Square and announcing that
we were embarking on a year to save America ã (Edward Heath)
1974
Harold Wilson (L) Prime Minister. (1974-1976)
James Callaghan, Foreign Secretary (1974-1976)
Denis Healey, chancellor of the Exchequer (1974-1979)
Gerald Ford (R) becomes President (1974-1977) after Nixon resignation on August 9,
1974 (Watergate Scandal)
1975
In 1975 Margaret Thatcher replaced Ted Heath as leader of the Conservative Party.
THE COUNTRY VOTED TO STAY IN THE COMMON MARKET. Although 67% of those who went to
the polling stations voted Yes to the EEC membership, it is doubtful that many knew
the deeper implications of the Treaty of Rome.
source
The US withdraws from Vietnam
1976
James Callaghan Prime Minister (1976-1979) after Wilsonâs resignation
US UK relationship improves
1977
Jimmy Carter President (D) (1977-1981)
Cyrus Vance, secretary of State (1977-1980)
1978
President Carter, by Executive Order in 1978, ordered that all research into the
Neutron Bomb was to be suspended.
1979
Margaret Thatcher (C) becomes Prime Minister (1979-1990)
Lord Carrington, Foreign Secretary (1979-1982)
1980
Trident Sales Agreement US -UK ( http://www.cnduk.org/briefing/snm.htm )
Mrs Thatcher achieved a reduction in British payments into the European Community.
source
1981
Ronald Reagan, President (R) (1981-1989)
Alexander Haig, secretary of State (1981-1982)
1982
Margaret Thatcher announces the governmentâs decision to buy trident II American
missiles
FALKLANDS WAR
ãMargaret Thatcher would have lost the Falklands war in 1982 if America had
failed to provide crucial missiles to bolster British air defences, according to
an adviser to the former prime minister.
America, which angered the Thatcher government with its initially even-handed approach
to the conflict, was believed to have provided little more than intelligence once
Washington lost patience with the Argentinians.
But British and American officials say in the BBC documentary that Washington provided
the latest Sidewinder missiles at 48 hours' notice after the British task force came
under fire.ä
source
ãTHE EVIL EMPIREä
President Reagan's Speech to the House of Commons, June 8, 1982, in which he calls
the Soviet system the "Evil Empire" the speech :
source
1983
Sir Geoffrey Howe, GB foreign Secretary (1983 ÷ 1989)
In Washington, President Reagan announced his STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE - the
idea for some futuristic missile defence system. It was quickly dubbed: STAR WARS.
It may have been a fantastic concept, with many critics, but by trying to match it,
the Soviet Union only added to its debts and inevitable bankruptcy.
source
US INVASION OF GRENADA
October 25. Britain's "special relationship" with the United States was
put under strain when US Marines invaded the Commonwealth island of Grenada. Britain
had been given no advance warning of the invasion which followed a Cuban-backed coup
on October 12 in which the prime minister, Maurice Bishop, and his Cabinet were slaughtered.
source
1984
January : The US deploys cruise missiles in Britain
April 1
Anti-nuclear campaigners formed a 14-mile human chain around the American cruise-missile
base at Greenham Common. The base had become a focus for protest ever since the United
States and the Thatcher government agreed to station the missiles in the UK.
source
1985
Reaganâs second presidency
1986
Apr. 14-15
RAID ON LIBYA (with the use of bases in Britain)
In Britain, Prime Minister Thatcher was roundly criticized for going against the
advice of her cabinet and supporting the American strike.
In the House of Commons she stood firm - like a "lioness in a den of Daniels,"
said the London Times -- against shouts of disapproval from opposition members.
The Iron Lady felt she owed Reagan for U.S. support during the Falklands War, and
she knew Gaddafi was giving aid to the IRA.
source
THE WESTLAND AFFAIR
the Westland affair almost brought down the Thatcher government in 1986.
Italy was involved then, too, as the government's preferred bidder for Westland was
the US/Italian Sikorsky-Fiat consortium, rather than the European consortium involving
British Aerospace that Defence Secretary Michael Heseltine was trying to put together.
The split within the Cabinet resulted in the resignations of Heseltine and Leon Brittan,
Trade and Industry Secretary, who went on to become Deputy Head of the European Commission
and got his revenge on his former sponsor (Thatcher) by pushing forward European
integration -
source
The confrontation between Thatcher and Heseltine on what should be done, led to the
dramatic resignation in the January 1986.
From this point, the Thatcher Cabinet was split between a generally sceptical group
and a small number loyal to the PM.
source
1987
Reagan/Gorbatchev signed the INF Treaty (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force)
1988
In September 1988, PM, Margaret Thatcher, set a bench mark by which her policy on
Europe would be longed judged.
This was her BRUGES SPEECH. In it, she made the memorable statement: "We have
not succeeded in rolling back the frontiers of the state in Britain, only to be seen
them reimposed at a European level."
With these words, Thatcher fanned the cause of what was to be the credo of the Euro-sceptic.
Her target was the central authority as advocated by the President of the European
Commission, Jacques Delors.
source
1989
Douglas Hurd, GB Foreign secretary (1989-1995)
George W. Bush President (1989 ÷ 1993)
Fall of Berlin Wall
1990
October
John Major, PM, Conservative, after the resignation of Margaret Thatcher.
NOTA
La démission de Margaret Thatcher est le dernier événement de
la question officielle 'SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP' - "la période délimitée
par l'arrivée à la présidence de Truman (avril 1945) et le retrait
de Mrs Thatcher (novembre 1990)"
PLEASE NOTE : the completed timeline and othe
Spe-Rel materials are available on Fayçal's site.